Brief Introduction to the Salam International Academic Journal The Salam International Academic Journal is a peer-reviewed academic journal that has obtained academic accreditation from the Ministry of Higher Education of Afghanistan and is registered as an international journal under the number (RCTD-PIJR-0027-25). It holds the following ISSN numbers: ISSN: 3078-9583 (Online) ISSN: 3078-9575 (Print) This journal publishes scholarly discussions in the field of social sciences after undergoing a rigorous peer-review process. The Salam International Academic Journal is a peer-reviewed journal published in multiple languages in both online and print formats. Access to its articles is free of charge, and publication fees are minimal. The journal is well recognized both within Afghanistan and internationally, and the publication process is conducted in a timely manner. Through this Academic journal, we have provided a research platform for researchers and scholars to share their research works and findings with others. Articles published in the Salam International Academic Journal are produced under the supervision of prominent and well-known scholars from around the world. This journal offers researchers an opportunity to publish their significant studies. Salam is a peer-reviewed, non-profit, semiannual (biannual) Academic journal with a primary focus on the social sciences. The Salam Academic Journal publishes original and innovative articles that offer practical and creative solutions to the issues addressed. Submitted manuscripts, after plagiarism screening and verification of initial formal requirements, are sent to specialized professors in the relevant fields for rigorous and comprehensive academic review. Following a strict process of evaluation and peer review, accepted articles are published.
دا څېړنه په اسلامي شریعت کې د "حاکم د اطاعت پولې او سرحدونه"په هراړخیزه توګه څېړي. د مقالې بنسټیزه مسئله دا ده چې په داسې حال کې چې هر نظام د واک د پراختیا غریزه لري، خو اسلامي شریعت د استبداد د مخنیوي لپاره د حاکم صلاحیتونه په دقیقو پولو کې محدود کړي دي. په دغه بحث کې د هغو افراطي او سطحي نظریاتو (لکه د مدخلي او جامي سلفیانو) نقد شوی چې د حاکم مطلق اطاعت، حتی په معصیت او فسق کې هم، فرض ګڼي. د مقالې محوري موندنې ښيي چې په اسلام کې د حاکم اطاعت مطلق نه، بلکې په لاندې څلورو اساسي قیودو مقید دی: ۱. شرعي قید (المعروف): اطاعت یوازې په معروف کې واجب دی او د الله په نافرمانۍ کې د هیڅ مخلوق اطاعت جواز نه لري. ۲. د مصلحت قید: د حاکم هر ډول تصرف او قانون باید د ولس پر عام مصلحت او ګټه ولاړ وي، که داسې نه وي، نو شرعي نفاذ نه لري. ۳. تعاقدي یا د تړون قید: د حاکم او ملت اړیکه یو "عقد" یا "وکالت" دی؛ حاکم د ملت وکیل دی او مکلف دی چې د ولس سره د شوي تړون او وثیقې (اساسي قانون) په رڼا کې عمل وکړي. ۴. اخلاقي قید: واکمن باید په خپلو پرېکړو کې د اسلامي اخلاقو لکه عدل، مساوات، رحمت او وفاء رعایت وکړي. څېړنه د حنفي فقهاوو او معتبرو اسلامي سرچینو په رڼا کې ثابتوي چې د استبداد د مخنیوي او د حقونو د خوندیتوب لپاره شورائیت (مشوره)، د ولس څارنه او د متخصصینو د مجلس شتون حتمي ضمانتونه دي. په پای کې، مقاله یو متوازن لیدلوری وړاندې کوي چې د رعایت په نتیجه کې یې نه په ټولنه کې ګډوډي رامنځته کېږي او نه هم د ظالمانه استبداد لپاره لاره هوارېږي.
Disagreement and Its Etiquette in the Light of Islamic Sharia
اختلاف و آداب آن بحثی است که روی اهمیت آن در شرایط کنونی -که انواع اختلافات در جامعه رونما است- به نگارش گرفته شده است، و درین بحث راجع به معنای لغوی و اصطلاحی اختلاف و انواع آن، بحث به میان آمده؛ اختلاف مذموم و مشروع ذکر یافته؛ به خاستگاه اختلاف و اسباب آن، توضیحات مناسب داده شده؛ آداب اختلاف بصورت تفصیلی مورد کنکاش قرار گرفته و به خاطر توضیح بیشتر ابعاد آن طی مطالب متعددی: مطلبی بنام آداب هنگام اختلاف، آداب برون رفت از اختلاف، آداب اخلاقی اختلاف، آداب علمی اختلاف و آداب اجتماعی اختلاف به بررسی گرفته شده است و درپایان مبحثی بنام: اختلاف علمای سلف، به حیث نمونه برای اقتداء به آنان مورد بحث قرار گرفته شده و در خاتمه نتائج و یافته های بحث تذکر یافته و پیشنهادات درج شده است. در نتائج بحث از طبیعی بودن اختلاف و لزوم رعایت آداب آن در صورت بروز اختلاف، و از شیوه های علمای سلف و رعایت آداب اختلاف به صورت همه جانبه آن و موضوعات دیگر بحث صورت گرفته است.
Progress and Backwardness of Societies and Civilizations in the Light of the Holy Qur’an
This article examines the factors of progress and backwardness of societies and civilizations in light of the Holy Quran. The study shows that faith, knowledge, justice, adherence to cosmic and social laws, cooperation and solidarity, ethical values, a suitable environment and economic resources, and a stable political system are considered the main factors for the advancement of societies and civilizations. Likewise, deviation in belief, despotic rulers, oppression, and corruption in its various forms are regarded as causes of the backwardness and decline of societies and civilizations. The study indicates that adherence to Qur’anic principles and utilization of divine laws is the key to the continuity and flourishing of societies and civilizations.
An Analysis of the Factors Behind Afghan Migration to Other Countries (Case Study: Iran and Its Adverse Effects)
Migration is a complex social phenomenon that arises from multiple causes. While it is sometimes considered an involuntary and forced act, in other instances it becomes a deliberate and strategic decision made by certain groups or institutions. Countries involved in migration processes are generally classified into two categories: those that primarily receive migrants and those that primarily send them. The causes of migration are commonly grouped into two main categories: internal factors and external factors. Among these, external factors are often shaped by the political ideologies and structural systems of destination countries. In the case of Afghan migration, several key external factors can be identified. These include: deliberate facilitation of brain drain by Western countries; immigration policies that encourage the outflow of skilled individuals from developing nations; demographic strategies aimed at reducing Muslim populations while increasing their own; the creation of employment opportunities and provision of welfare benefits to attract migrants; simplified processes for absorbing intellectual talent from the Global South; and the political and economic weakening of developing countries through systematic migration. In addition, such patterns may later be used as a tool for political pressure or leverage. This study aims to investigate these external drivers of Afghan migration, with particular attention to migration flows toward European countries. The research focuses on identifying the motives and conditions that enable such migration. Its importance lies in the argument that a clear understanding of these external factors is essential for designing strategies to manage and reduce migration pressures. This is a qualitative study based on descriptive and analytical methods. Data were collected through academic books, peer-reviewed articles, credible online sources, and the researcher’s own field-based observations and analyses. The findings suggest that external drivers, alongside internal factors such as poverty, unemployment, and social hardship, play a significant role in influencing the migration of Afghans.
Cultural and Educational Factors and Their Role in Afghan Migration Abroad
Afghan emigration has become a major social trend over recent decades, influenced by intertwined political, economic, cultural, and educational factors. While conflict and economic instability are often highlighted, the role of cultural restrictions and limited educational opportunities has received comparatively less attention. This study focuses on these underexplored drivers of migration, particularly the lack of quality education and restrictive cultural norms, which limit personal and professional development and encourage emigration -especially among youth and professionals. The aim of this review is to examine how cultural values, literacy levels, gender-based constraints, and inadequate educational infrastructure shape migration decisions. A library-based methodology using descriptive and analytical approaches was employed to synthesize academic and institutional literature on Afghan migration. Findings indicate that Afghanistan’s weak education system, scarce academic resources, and sociocultural barriers significantly limit upward mobility. In particular, gender-based restrictions and societal expectations heavily influence the decision to migrate, especially for individuals seeking intellectual growth and professional advancement. The appeal of better educational prospects abroad remains a major pull factor, contributing to a growing “brain drain”. While emigration provides individuals with access to global opportunities, it also undermines Afghanistan’s human capital and hampers long-term development. This review underscores the importance of reforming domestic education, promoting gender equity, and fostering international academic cooperation. Addressing these issues through culturally informed and sustainable strategies is essential to reduce forced migration and strengthen Afghanistan’s social and intellectual foundation.
An Integrated Theoretical and Empirical Analysis of Push and Pull Factors in Afghan Irregular Migration: Insights for Sustainable Policy Responses
Irregular migration from Afghanistan persists as a critical socio-political and economic issue affecting both origin and destination countries. Despite extensive empirical studies, the lack of theoretical integration has hindered comprehensive understanding of the multidimensional drivers of Afghan migration. This study employs, mixed-methods approach, grounded in Lee's Push-Pull Theory Dependency Theory, and Functionalism to analyze the factors influencing Afghan irregular migration and returnee reintegration. Data were collected from 150 returnees originating from Iran, Pakistan, and selected European countries through structured surveys and in-depth interviews. The findings reveal that economic instability, insecurity, and lack of access to essential services are dominant push factors, while employment prospects, social networks, and legal protections in host countries serve as strong pull factors. Reintegration challenges such as unemployment, social stigmatization, and persistent insecurity significantly contribute to a high propensity for re-migration among returnees. The study underscores the need for inclusive development policies, strengthened regional migration governance, and targeted reintegration strategies. These insights provide valuable direction for policymakers seeking to manage migration sustainably and support returnees effectively.
Academic Hijra: Exploratory Case Study Investigating Factors for Emigration of Afghan Female Scholars
This paper presents the findings and discussion on the factors responsible for the emigration of female Afghan academics and scholars from Afghanistan. The review of literature had highlighted a significant lacuna in engagement and voice of migrant female Afghan academics. Thereby, the research undertaken through an exploratory interpretative-narrative case study approach uncovered three emergent themes leading to the identification of a single major factor influencing their decision. The interview schedule, as an ensuing narrative, uncovered the loss of individual liberty; the paucity in criticality in academic thought-practice (praxis) and the ‘lack of belonging both within academia and society’ as underlying factors, which the study classifies as emergent themes to formulate and identify the driving force and motivation for emigration, the major finding of the study, which is encapsulated in the notion of an ‘enforced disengagement’.
Factors Contributing to Brain Drain and Strategies for Retaining Skilled Professionals in Afghanistan: A Multisectoral Approach
This qualitative study investigates the underlying factors contributing to brain drain in Afghanistan and proposes actionable strategies to retain skilled professionals. Drawing on in-depth interviews with 33 Afghan professionals residing in various countries, the research identifies key drivers of emigration, including political instability, poor quality of life, ethnic discrimination, economic hardship, personal insecurity, lack of professional growth, and an uncertain future. Participants’ narratives reveal the multidimensional nature of intellectual migration and highlight the urgent need for systemic reforms. Proposed retention strategies include enhancing political stability and governance, improving public services and infrastructure, enforcing anti-discrimination measures, creating economic and employment opportunities, and engaging the Afghan diaspora. The findings underscore the importance of a holistic, multi-sectoral approach to mitigating brain drain and fostering an environment conducive to personal and professional fulfillment. This study offers practical insights for policymakers, development practitioners, and scholars aiming to strengthen Afghanistan’s human capital base and support long-term national development.
The Cost-Benefit Analysis of Brain Drain and Remittances: Identifying Strategic Priorities for Afghanistan’s Economic Development
This study investigates the cost-benefit dynamics of brain drain and remittances in Afghanistan, focusing on their socio-economic impacts and strategic implications for sustainable development. Employing a mixed-methods approach, the research integrates qualitative thematic analysis and quantitative regression models to examine the relationship between skilled migration, remittances, and overall economic performance, including GDP and human capital development. Data were sourced from international reports, academic studies, and global databases, capturing a comprehensive view of migration and remittance trends. The findings reveal that political instability, restrictive policies, and limited professional opportunities are major drivers of brain drain, undermining Afghanistan’s economic resilience and growth. While remittances positively contribute to GDP and poverty alleviation, over-reliance on these inflows creates long-term economic vulnerabilities. The study emphasizes the importance of governance reforms, strategies to retain skilled professionals, and policies to channel remittances into productive investments. These findings provide actionable insights for addressing brain drain while leveraging remittances for Afghanistan’s sustainable development.
Brain Drain in Afghanistan’s Public Universities: Examining the Experiences of Migrated Faculty Members
The migration of academic professionals from Afghanistan’s public universities has escalated following the political transition of August 2021, presenting critical challenges to the country’s higher education system. This qualitative study explores the motivations, lived experiences, and institutional consequences of teacher migration, drawing on semi-structured interviews with 11 university faculty members who relocated abroad. Thematic analysis, guided by Braun and Clarke’s (2006) framework, was employed to categorize findings across personal, organizational, and national dimensions. The analysis revealed that political instability, economic insecurity, limited academic freedom, and concerns for family safety were key factors influencing migration decisions. Participants also cited low salaries and the lack of research opportunities as significant push factors. The departure of experienced faculty has led to a decline in educational quality, loss of institutional knowledge, and weakened research capacity within universities. To mitigate these effects, the study recommends coordinated action by the Afghan government, university leadership, and international stakeholders. Specific measures include fostering institutional security through higher education reforms, enhancing economic incentives, safeguarding academic freedom, and expanding opportunities for professional growth. Moreover, the study underscores the importance of engaging the Afghan academic diaspora through structured knowledge-exchange initiatives, virtual collaborations, and short-term academic projects. While the implementation of these recommendations may face constraints such as limited funding and political uncertainty, their gradual adoption offers a pathway toward stabilizing and revitalizing Afghanistan’s higher education sector.
The impact of skilled workforce migration on Emerging technologies in Afghanistan
The mass migration of Afghanistan’s skilled IT workforce since 2021 has had profound consequences on the country’s technological infrastructure and capacity for innovation. This paper investigates the multidimensional impact of this brain drain, with a particular focus on enterprise systems, software development, computer science education, and the adoption of emerging technologies. Using case studies such as the failed Oracle Solaris migration at Kabul Bank and institutional data from Afghan universities and public sector databases, we demonstrate how the loss of over 70% of certified IT professionals has led to systemic failures, stalled projects, increased cybersecurity risks, and a weakened talent pipeline. Beyond assessing the damage, this study also explores strategic responses to mitigate the effects of workforce migration. Recommended solutions include strengthening STEM education, incentivizing talent retention and return migration, fostering public-private partnerships, improving digital infrastructure, and promoting remote collaboration with the Afghan diaspora. The research concludes that while the challenges are severe, a coordinated, multi-stakeholder approach rooted in policy reform, investment, and international collaboration can help Afghanistan rebuild a resilient, self-sustaining tech ecosystem and reclaim its position in the global technological landscape.
Factors Driving Migration from Afghanistan with Emphasis on the Recent Wave and the Emigration of Elites
Migration has a long-standing history in Afghanistan, with all its forms, including displacement and asylum-seeking, having been experienced throughout the country’s political past. The objective of this study is to address the key question: what are the primary factors influencing the recent wave of migration following the U.S. military withdrawal from Afghanistan in 2021 (1400), particularly the migration of elites, and how do these factors shape migration decision-making? This research adopts a qualitative approach and is based on semi-structured interviews conducted with twenty political, social, and academic experts. The collected data were coded and analyzed using Nvivo 12 software through thematic analysis. The findings indicate that economic, political, socio-cultural, and educational factors have served as the main drivers of elite migration from Afghanistan. These factors exert influence not only in the country of origin but also in destination countries. The final results of the study reveal that lack of employment opportunities, poverty, restrictions on civil liberties, limited access to education (especially for girls), and deficiencies in the provision of social services are among the most significant factors intensifying the motivation for elite migration.
The Role of Media-Based Public Awareness in Preventing Irregular Migration
This study aims to examine the constructive role of media-driven public awareness in the prevention of irregular migration. It is qualitative research conducted using the focus group method with seven senior faculty members from the Faculty of Journalism at Nangarhar University. The collected data were analyzed using thematic analysis. The findings indicate that although the credibility of mass media is generally high, the credibility of social media varies significantly. A considerable number of individuals inclined toward irregular migration rely on social media as their primary source of information. Likewise, human traffickers exploit social media platforms to persuade young people to migrate through illegal channels for financial gain. Despite this, social media has also been identified as an effective tool in anti-migration awareness campaigns. News genres and audio-visual spots are considered among the most effective formats for delivering media content. Thus, the media is not only a means of disseminating information but also plays a critical role in shaping public opinion, influencing beliefs, and guiding decision-making processes. If utilized strategically and responsibly, media can serve as a powerful instrument in preventing irregular migration. This study recommends the production of evidence-based and high-quality content to support future media interventions in this domain.
Investigating the Living Conditions of Afghan migrants in Iran, Challenges and Solutions.
This study examines the economic and social conditions of Afghan migrants residing in Iran, focusing on their access to education and healthcare services, as well as their legal and residency status. In addition, the research aims to propose strategies that support the sustainable reintegration of these migrants upon their return to Afghanistan. An applied research design was adopted, using a descriptive-analytical approach combined with a survey-based methodology. Primary data were collected through a structured questionnaire based on a five-point Likert scale and analyzed using SPSS software. Descriptive statistical techniques, particularly mean analysis, were employed to assess the migrants’ living conditions. The findings reveal that Afghan migrants in Iran face generally unfavorable living circumstances, with an overall mean score of 2.506. The most critical challenge identified is the high cost of living compared to Iranian citizens, with a mean score of 4.09. In contrast, the least significant issue reported was insufficient income to meet living expenses, which received a mean score of 1.54. Based on these findings, the study recommends strategic interventions to improve the reintegration outcomes of returning Afghan migrants and to reduce the likelihood of re-migration. Key recommendations include: the creation of sustainable employment opportunities; strengthening of social rights; expansion of access to education and healthcare services; targeted investments in the productive, service, and agricultural sectors; enhancement of economic infrastructure; and the provision of financial support and resettlement assistance.
Push Factors Contributing to Brain Drain with Emphasis on Origin-Based Determinants (Everett Lee's Theory) A Case Study of Kunduz City
Human capital is one of the most meaningful and strategic resources in the development equation of nations, playing an increasingly influential role in the process of national growth. Unfortunately, developing and underdeveloped countries, despite their limited income and resources, invest in cultivating such talent in the hope that it will contribute to development. However, due to unfavorable political, economic, social, and security conditions in the country of origin, this talent often chooses to migrate abroad. The purpose of this study is to identify and analyze the push factors contributing to the brain drain from the city of Kunduz, based on Everett Lee’s migration theory. By focusing on adverse economic, social, and security conditions in the country of origin, this research seeks to explain the reasons behind the outmigration of skilled human capital. The study is applied in purpose and descriptive-analytical in methodology, employing statistical tools for analysis. The main research question addresses which factors, in line with Everett Lee's theory, are most influential in driving the brain drain from Kunduz. The research hypotheses include all origin-based push factors outlined in Everett Lee’s migration theory, along with additional factors identified by the researchers in the field, amounting to a total of seventeen variables. The statistical population includes 155,964 individuals residing in eight districts of Kunduz city. Using the Morgan sampling table, a sample of 382 respondents was selected through proportional stratified sampling. Data were collected using a Likert-scale questionnaire, which was distributed online. The collected data were analyzed using SPSS software, and the reliability of the instrument was confirmed with a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.865, indicating strong internal consistency. The results of the Friedman ranking test show that among the seventeen hypothesized push factors influencing brain drain from Kunduz, the most significant include economic factors such as unemployment and lack of job opportunities (mean rank 11.39), political instability (11.09), and absence of economic prospects and economic instability (10.93). These are followed by factors such as lack of political stability (9.58), political discrimination (9.56), low salaries and wages (9.52), suppression of political freedoms (9.44), social restrictions (9.20), and lack of personal development opportunities (9.11). Additional influential factors include decline in social welfare (8.38), gender discrimination (8.31), political persecution of elites (8.19), desire for greater political freedom (8.18), physical threats to elites (7.93), social network ties among relatives of elites (5.97), and lack of healthcare and medical facilities (5.92(.
Exploring the Factors That Restrain and Regulate Afghan Migration
The implementation of effective government measures to prevent Afghan youth from migrating, particularly to neighboring countries, stems from several underlying factors. However, the government can help reduce the outflow of young, active, and skilled individuals through various actions, including: prosecuting human traffickers, securing border areas, expanding educational opportunities, improving national security, combating poverty and unemployment, addressing family and tribal disputes, resisting harmful cultural practices, making marriage more affordable, promoting the intellectual and academic development of the younger generation, ensuring respectful and balanced behavior from authorities, enhancing agricultural productivity and using it to manage migration, developing natural resources such as mines, managing the country’s water resources, establishing factories and production centers, preparing for natural disasters, controlling rapid population growth, launching state-led employment programs, applying Islamic economic laws, strengthening the agricultural system, creating diverse job opportunities, and other practical steps that can help prevent migration. The purpose of this study is to explore and analyze the main deterrent factors that can reduce Afghan migration to different countries around the world. The significance of this research lies in its potential to address serious social challenges and propose solutions that can protect Afghanistan from the harms and negative reputation caused by widespread migration. This study is qualitative, descriptive, and analytical in nature. Data were collected from books, academic articles, internet sources, and the researcher’s field observations and analyses. The findings provide insight into the actions and factors that can deter or control Afghan migration.
An Analysis of the Situation of Afghan Migrants in Tehran: Exploring Social, Psychological, Legal Experiences and the Impact of International Support
The migration of Afghans represents one of the longest-standing and most complex migration crises at the international level, with wide-ranging social, economic, and political consequences for both origin and host countries. This study aims to assess the living conditions of Afghan migrants, their legal and social challenges, and the extent of international support provided to them. The research adopts a descriptive-analytical methodology. Data were collected through a researcher-designed online questionnaire and analyzed using SPSS software. The sample size was determined using Cochran's formula, resulting in a total of 384 participants. A purposive, snowball (network-based) sampling method was used to select respondents. The findings indicate that the majority of Afghan migrants in Iran lack legal documentation and have limited access to healthcare services, education, and employment opportunities. Additionally, experiences of forced deportation and the host country’s restrictive policies have negatively impacted the psychological and social well-being of these migrants. Correlation analysis further revealed a direct relationship between poor living conditions and increased psychological stress among migrants. The study concludes by offering recommendations to improve the legal and social status of Afghan migrants.
Social Consequences of Migration for the People of Afghanistan
Migration, as a social phenomenon, exerts a significant influence on various aspects and dimensions of society. In the context of Afghanistan, where the country has experienced complex conditions over recent decades, this phenomenon has become deeply interwoven with the lives of most Afghan families. The central question of the present study is how migration affects social roles, family structure, and the social identity of Afghans. The importance of this issue arises from the fact that large-scale migration, driven by political, economic, security, and environmental crises, has created not only individual-level consequences but also profound social challenges for Afghan society. The aim of this study is to analyze the social consequences of migration for the people of Afghanistan and to present a comprehensive picture of both the positive and negative impacts of this phenomenon. This research has been conducted using a descriptive-analytical method and relies on secondary data sources. The data were collected from reports published by international organizations, case studies, and academic articles. The findings of the study indicate that migration has led to the breakdown of social networks, changes in family roles, and the emergence of identity crises among Afghan migrants. To mitigate the negative effects of migration and to strengthen its positive outcomes, policymakers should adopt more comprehensive approaches. These include investing in economic development and the creation of sustainable job opportunities, improving access to education and healthcare services, and reinforcing social cohesion in origin communities. Additionally, raising public awareness about the risks of irregular migration and supporting Afghan migrants in host communities can contribute to reducing the adverse consequences of this phenomenon.
The Role of Engagement and Convergence in the Retention of Elites in Afghanistan
The retention of elites in Afghanistan represents one of the key challenges to achieving sustainable development and realizing social, economic, and political progress. As essential components of human capital, elites play a critical role in driving national transformation. However, a range of factors—such as corruption, social inequalities, political instability, and the lack of suitable employment opportunities—have contributed to increased emigration and weakened engagement between elites and society. This study employs a descriptive-analytical and inductive methodology to examine the role of engagement and convergence in fostering the long-term presence of elites in Afghanistan. It also assesses the key determinants of their retention. The findings indicate that enhancing transparency and accountability in governance, strengthening the educational system, ensuring social justice, expanding employment opportunities, improving security and political stability, and supporting professionals are among the most effective strategies for retaining elites within the country. Achieving this objective, and thereby advancing sustainable development in Afghanistan, requires comprehensive collaboration between the state and its elite class to establish a conducive environment for growth and progress.
The Lives of Afghan Migrants in Western Countries: Challenges, Opportunities, and Consequences
This study examines the lives of Afghan migrants in Western countries and seeks to answer the question of what challenges and opportunities they face, as well as the consequences of these experiences for them. The research method used in this study is grounded theory. The sampling strategy was purposive, through which interviews were conducted with fifteen Afghan migrants residing in Western countries. The findings indicate that Afghan migrants in Western societies face a range of challenges. These include socio-cultural challenges such as feelings of displacement, unfamiliarity with the language, cultural differences, and nostalgia for the homeland; economic challenges such as tax obligations, forced labor, and the financial costs of migration; and political-security challenges such as the presence of anti-immigrant groups, unsafe migration routes, and the creation of insecurity within European contexts. At the same time, these migrants also have access to certain opportunities. These include socio-cultural opportunities such as social integration, prospects for advancement, and the value placed on ethnic diversity in Western societies; economic opportunities such as access to welfare benefits and favorable working conditions; and political-security opportunities such as equal human rights and the possibility of acquiring citizenship. The consequences of this situation for Afghan migrants include the maintenance of transnational ties, weakening of intra-ethnic interactions, and financial support of family members. The results of the study suggest that although Afghan migrants express satisfaction with life in Western countries, their experiences are marked by various problems, limitations, and identity attachments. Their sense of identity cannot be understood in a singular or linear way. Instead, their collective and individual identities are shaped by both their lives in Afghanistan and in the Western countries where they now reside, resulting in a hybrid identity influenced by multiple societies to which they belong or feel connected.
Senior Lecturer Dr. Mohammad Hassan Yusufi
The Islamic Ruling on Migration to Non-Islamic Countries from the Perspective of Islamic Jurisprudence
Linguistically, the term hijrah (migration) refers to leaving one's homeland and relocating from one place to another. In Islamic jurisprudential terminology, hijrah traditionally refers to leaving a land of unbelief (Dar al-Kufr) and moving to a land of Islam (Dar al-Islam). It may also refer to departing from a land of injustice to a land of justice, or from a place of religious turmoil to one of safety, with the primary intention of preserving one’s faith. The phenomenon of leaving an Islamic country and migrating to non-Islamic countries, whether for temporary or permanent residence, represents a contemporary legal issue that requires clarification from the standpoint of Islamic law. The core focus of this research is to explore the Islamic jurisprudential position on migration to non-Islamic countries according to the views of classical and contemporary Islamic scholars. The importance of this issue stems from two key concerns: first, migration to non-Islamic countries poses a potential threat to the religious integrity of Muslim migrants; second, it presents a major challenge to the growth and development of Islamic nations, particularly Afghanistan. This research employs a library-based methodology, relying on the collection and analysis of scholarly opinions through inductive reasoning, evaluation, and analytical judgment. The findings reveal that the ruling of Islamic law on migration and residence in non-Islamic countries is highly dependent on specific contexts and circumstances. According to the predominant view among contemporary scholars of Islamic jurisprudence, if migration or residence in a non-Islamic country exposes the individual and their family to religious corruption and prevents the proper practice of Islamic rituals, then both temporary and permanent residence in such countries is prohibited (haram). If the migration is motivated solely by the pursuit of material well-being, comfort, or enjoyment, then it is considered strongly discouraged (makruh tahrimi) due to the high risk of spiritual harm and cultural assimilation. However, in cases of pressing necessity—such as inviting non-Muslims to Islam, seeking essential knowledge, accessing medical treatment, or fleeing from an oppressive ruler who threatens imprisonment or torture—such migration may be deemed obligatory (wajib) or recommended (sunnah). In ordinary circumstances, the ruling may range between permissibility (ibahah), discouragement (karahah), or conditional permissibility, depending on the individual’s situation.
Acquisition of Citizenship in Non-Islamic Countries from the Perspective of Islamic Jurisprudence, National Law, and International Law
The phenomenon of acquiring citizenship and permanent residency in non-Islamic countries has become one of the major challenges to the growth and development of Islamic nations across the world, particularly in Afghanistan. This issue has attracted the attention of scholars and religious authorities within the Muslim community. Many capable and educated individuals from the Islamic world, who have attained advanced education in various sciences and disciplines, have sought citizenship and long-term residency in non-Islamic countries in pursuit of material comfort, imagined freedoms, employment opportunities, or specialized education unavailable in their home countries. These individuals, in fact, represent a foundational pillar and vital human capital for the progress and development of Islamic nations, especially Afghanistan. The increasing prevalence of this phenomenon in recent times has prompted many scholars to investigate its legal status in Islamic jurisprudence. In response, the present author has attempted, by the grace of Almighty Allah, to examine the issue comprehensively from the standpoint of Islamic jurisprudence as well as national and international law. This paper is accordingly titled "Acquisition of Citizenship in Non-Islamic Countries from the Perspective of Islamic Jurisprudence, National Law, and International Law." The study adopts a library-based descriptive-analytical and inductive method to explore the position of Islamic law, national legislation, and international legal frameworks regarding the acquisition of citizenship in non-Islamic countries. It also examines the views of Islamic jurists on this matter. The findings indicate that the Islamic legal perspective on acquiring citizenship and permanent residency in non-Islamic countries is conditional and context-dependent. According to the predominant scholarly opinion, if such residency leads to religious corruption, exposes a person and their family to moral harm, or prevents the observance of Islamic rites, then even temporary residence in a non-Muslim country (Dar al-Kufr) is considered prohibited (haram). If the intention behind migration is merely to pursue a life of comfort and material enjoyment, the act is regarded as strongly discouraged (makruh tahrimi) due to the risk of cultural assimilation. However, in cases involving the pursuit of essential knowledge, treatment of chronic illnesses, or escape from persecution and injustice, such residency may be deemed obligatory (wajib) or recommended (sunnah). Under normal circumstances, rulings may vary between permissibility (mubah), discouragement (makruh), or conditional permissibility depending on individual cases. From the perspective of international law, every individual has the right to seek asylum and residence in any country—regardless of its religious affiliation—in cases of persecution, torture, or threat.
The Migration of Scholars of Hadith and Jurisprudence from This Land (Herat, Balkh, Bust, and Baghlan)
The discussion on the migration of scholars from the provinces of Herat, Balkh, Bust, and Baghlan is a scholarly and library-based research topic. The content of this study has been developed through the review and analysis of relevant books. This topic holds significant importance as it relates to a critical part of the country’s historical narrative, namely, the migration of scholars from specific regions of Afghanistan. The study begins with a brief introduction to the four mentioned provinces. It then proceeds to examine the migration of hadith scholars and jurists from these regions. For each province, a sample of notable hadith scholars and jurists is introduced, along with the names of the destinations to which they migrated. The reasons and factors underlying the migration of scholars are also analyzed in detail. Finally, the study explores both the positive and negative consequences of these migrations, presenting the outcomes separately. The article concludes with a summary of the main research findings.
An Analysis of the Determinants of Migration in Developing Countries
The objective of this study is to examine the key factors influencing migration from developing countries to developed nations. To this end, the research is framed within the push-pull theory of migration and employs a panel data model to analyze the impact of various factors on migration flows between these two groups of countries. The findings indicate that the geographical distance between origin and destination countries has a negative and statistically significant effect for both groups, suggesting that as the distance increases, migration to the destination country tends to decrease. The labor supply in the country of origin is found to be positive and significant for developing countries, but not significant for developed countries. The technological gap variable is negatively significant for developed countries, while it is positively significant for developing countries. In both groups, higher investment rates in the country of origin are associated with a decrease in migration; however, developing countries are more sensitive to this variable. Furthermore, variables such as per capita GDP differential, birth rate, human capital index, migration in the past two years, population size, and foreign direct investment in the country of origin are all positive and statistically significant for both groups. Among these, population and foreign direct investment exert a relatively smaller influence on shaping migration flows.
Associate Professor Dr. Inullah Mirzazadah
A Study of the Mental Health of Returnee Migrants Case Study: Jawzjan Province
This study was conducted to assess the mental health of migrants who have returned from foreign countries. The statistical population of this research consists of returnees who came back to Jawzjan Province from abroad in the year 1403 (2024–2025). A total of 300 individuals were selected through accessible random sampling, and the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) was distributed and completed. The data were analyzed using a descriptive and causal-comparative research method with SPSS version 26. The findings indicate that the mental health of returnees is below the desirable level, with male returnees reporting lower levels of mental well-being compared to female returnees. Additionally, significant differences in mental health were observed across different age groups. The results further suggest that the difficulties experienced during the migration period remain evident even after return, and reintegration with the country of origin continues to pose challenges for returnees over time.
The Relationship between Economic Factors Influencing Afghan Migration: An Analysis of Economic Crises and Employment Opportunities
This paper investigates the economic factors influencing Afghan migration, with a particular focus on the role of economic crises and employment opportunities in intensifying or reducing migration trends. Drawing on migration theories and the political economy framework, the study explores the relationship between economic fluctuations, financial crises, labor market conditions, and individuals’ decisions to leave the country. A mixed-methods research design was adopted, combining both qualitative and quantitative approaches. The methodology includes a literature review, semi-structured interviews with subject-matter experts, and statistical analysis of secondary data from both international and domestic sources. The findings indicate that key drivers of Afghan migration include economic crises such as inflation, currency devaluation, and high unemployment, along with a persistent lack of job opportunities. These economic pressures significantly contribute to individuals’ motivation to migrate. Based on the evidence, it is clear that economic instability and limited employment prospects are central factors in shaping migration patterns. To address these challenges, the study recommends that policymakers and relevant institutions invest in building robust economic infrastructure, reform the education system, and combat administrative corruption. Such measures can foster greater social stability and reduce the rate of outward migration. The research contributes to the broader understanding of migration dynamics and provides a foundation for more comprehensive studies and policy development in the fields of migration and economic resilience. The paper concludes by outlining practical recommendations for mitigating the negative impact of economic factors on migration flows.
Examining the Role of International Organizations in Supporting Afghan Migrants
The migration of millions of Afghan citizens, particularly in the wake of recent political and security developments, has become a complex and multidimensional international challenge. Driven by political, economic, and social crises, this situation calls for coordinated international efforts to manage its consequences. In this context, international organizations such as the United Nations, the International Organization for Migration (IOM), and other humanitarian agencies have played a vital role in supporting Afghan migrants. Their involvement extends beyond humanitarian assistance to include asylum planning, relocation to safe countries, and the provision of legal aid. This study explores the support provided by international organizations, the key factors driving Afghan migration, the consequences of migration for individuals and society, and strategies to mitigate these trends. The findings reveal that international and humanitarian organizations have made significant contributions to assisting Afghan migrants. At the same time, migration has led to several negative outcomes for Afghanistan, including brain drain, a decline in skilled labor, and cultural and social disruption. Deportation policies have further increased pressure on the Afghan government, migrants themselves, and the supporting organizations. Using a descriptive research approach informed by academic theories and case studies, this article provides an in-depth analysis of the migration phenomenon. The results suggest that addressing this challenge requires the implementation of policies aimed at creating sustainable employment, improving internal security, expanding access to education and healthcare, and establishing support programs for returning migrants. It is hoped that the insights from this study will assist policymakers in designing more effective strategies for managing and reducing migration in the long term.
The Impact of Skilled and Educated Migration on Afghanistan’s Development
The migration of professionals or brain drain is considered one of the fundamental challenges to human development in crisis-affected countries like Afghanistan. This study aims to identify the key factors influencing the migration of Afghan elites, examine its social, economic, and educational consequences, and propose scientific and practical strategies to address this phenomenon. The research method is descriptive-analytical, utilizing document analysis and content review of international reports. The findings indicate that political instability, various forms of discrimination, lack of suitable employment opportunities, and absence of structural support for professionals are among the primary drivers of migration. This trend has had significant negative impacts on the educational system, economic development processes, and the country's social capital. However, the results show that with targeted policymaking and the establishment of supportive mechanisms, elite migration can be transformed into an opportunity for development, especially through facilitating return migration, remote engagement, knowledge and skills transfer, creation of international networks, and promotion of innovation and entrepreneurship. This study can be used by government institutions, universities, and international organizations in formulating national migration policies and educational planning.
Migration of Scholars and Academics: Its Positive and Negative Impacts on Afghanistan
The migration of Afghan scholars and academics has intensified in recent decades due to imposed wars, political instability, insecurity, and religious, social, and cultural restrictions. This migration, often occurring under coercion and in response to threats to personal safety or professional limitations, has resulted in the loss of valuable human capital from the country. Afghan scholars, university professors, researchers, and experts have relocated to neighboring and distant countries in pursuit of academic continuity and personal security. Although the phenomenon of elite migration has persisted for many years, the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan must take serious steps to address its negative consequences and mitigate the trend by leveraging the current security environment. While the migration of scholars has created opportunities for international academic engagement, it has also inflicted significant harm on the country’s educational and research systems. Consequences such as brain drain, weakened academic institutions, and the shortage of qualified mentors require urgent attention from national authorities. Supporting migrant scholars and facilitating their return and reintegration into the academic rebuilding process is essential for the country’s intellectual and institutional revival.
The Role of Religious Scholars and Intellectuals in Reducing Migration from Afghanistan
It is a bitter yet undeniable reality that the painful history of Afghan migration abroad, which began nearly half a century ago, not only persists with the same intensity but has, in fact, increased over time. The factors and motivations driving Afghans to migrate, particularly to the United States and Europe, are diverse. The most significant of these include war and insecurity, internal conflicts and tensions, and the aspiration for a relatively peaceful and comfortable life. In light of the various and widespread harms caused by migration, which have even affected universities and academic institutions, Salam University has taken the initiative to organize a national conference. This initiative aims to highlight the negative consequences of migration and to explore strategies for its prevention. The university itself, following the emergence of the Islamic Emirate, has been affected by migration and has lost several of its professors, academic staff members, and a large number of students. There is no doubt that national authorities and decision-makers, especially religious scholars, intellectuals, and academics, bear both national and religious responsibilities. They must actively engage using rational and effective methods that can reshape the mindset of those inclined to migrate, in order to prevent further migration which ultimately harms Afghans and their homeland. In this brief and focused paper, I have attempted to draw the attention of scholars and intellectuals to their religious and national duties and to highlight their potential role in preventing or reducing the migration trend.